A young man who had been bullied in school shared his trauma with a friend. The friend responded, “I think I might be able to help” as he handed over a flyer. He continued, “I belong to this organization that is a lobby group for people like us. You know, with European backgrounds.” Thus began the radicalization of a young man who would go on to become a violent white supremacist.
This anecdote from RAND’s study of extremism is simply one example of the insidious nature of radicalization. John Horgan, Director of the International Center for the Study of Terrorism at Penn State University, defines radicalization as “a social and psychological process of incrementally experienced commitment to extremist political or religious ideology.” While this process has renewed relevance and urgency it’s not a new phenomenon and Rajiv Joseph’s Archduke expertly illustrates the ways history repeats itself. Set on the cusp of World War I, the play offers a darkly comic look at what makes radicalization so attractive. It calls to mind what is swirling around us in our homes, schools, communities, and lurking behind every keyboard. Let's explore radicalization: how social media has shifted its front lines, why young people are especially vulnerable, and what can be done to guard against it in the internet age.
CTRL: CONTROL STRATEGIES & RISK FACTORS FOR RADICALIZATION
Looking at Horgan’s definition of radicalization, it’s important to note the word “incremental.” The process is barely perceptible; it happens little by little because it requires a certain level of comfort and trust to be cultivated. The conditions that are conducive to radicalization are distilled in The Three Pillars of Radicalization: Needs, Narratives, and Networks. The first pillar is the Need of the individual or, as they call it, the “quest for significance. . .the fundamental desire to matter, to be someone, to have respect.” The second pillar, Narrative, refers to the ideology shared by the adopted group, which can include a sensationalized story of alleged degradation the group has suffered at the hands of a perceived enemy. The Narrative also declares that violence is what will achieve the remedy, offer meaning, and meet the need. The third pillar, Network, refers to the channels that provide individuals the opportunity to become part of such a community.
The Network provides an individual with a like-minded community. In 2022, Frontiers in Psychiatry published a study on the role manipulation played on convicted young terrorists responsible for attacks in Barcelona and Cambrils. The researches identify a process that begins when recruiters target their potential recruits from vulnerable communities, then work to win their trust. Once they have their trust, radicalization happens in three phases: first, a young person submits, surrenders their autonomy, and becomes dependent on the new relationship; second, the recruiter introduces a new ideology via psychological manipulation so that the individual no longer maintains their own identity; finally, the recruit buys into the adopted ideology by supporting the use of violence and accepting their new role as a victim suffering alleged abuse or oppression at the hands of this so-called enemy.
The study offered the following risk factors to explain why youth are particularly vulnerable: adolescents are still developing the skills needed to regulate emotions and frequently undergo intense ups and downs; they are more reactive and highly sensitive to what people think of them, particularly their peers, and are deeply affected by rejection and exclusion. They are also more likely to behave in risky ways. Certain factors can compound a young person’s vulnerability. According to 2018 National Institute of Justice reports, these risk factors include financial instability, certain mental health issues, and social isolation or relationship struggles.
Several manipulation strategies can be used to attract and maintain the loyalty of potential radicals. These can include further isolation, control of information, and creating dependence on the recruiter or network. Dependence can be cultivated through rewards and punishments, confusing or altering metal processes such as critical thinking, or blurring the lines of reality and fantasy— sometimes through drugs, meditation, or chanting. In Archduke, Apis employs many of these techniques in his interactions with Gavrilo, and we witness an almost textbook example demonstrating both how to and whom to radicalize.
CTRL TODAY: GENDER DRIVERS OF RADICALIZATION
Let’s take a look at just how chilling this network can be and how terrifyingly close to home it lives, focusing on gender drivers of radicalization such as those we see in Archduke. In the play, Apis’ extremist beliefs and actions seem to be fueled in part by an ideology of male supremacy, as evidenced by his language and behavior in relation to Queen Draga and Duchess Sophie. In 2024 the SPLC identified seven new male supremacist hate groups, bringing the total number to 16—said to be a low estimate—and their content is exploding online. The Fresh & Fit podcast, covers “females, fitness, and finances” for 1.5 million subscribers. The hosts are well known for their comments toward and their mistreatment of Black women who appear as guests on their show. Why Women Deserve Less, a 2023 book written by one of the hosts, is a popular title in these online communities. Fresh & Fit was banned by Facebook and Instagram but is very much alive on its current platform. This podcast is only one example of what has come to be known as “the manosphere,” an umbrella term for online communities that uplift misogynistic content, alpha-male ideals, white supremacist culture, toxic masculinity, gender stereotypes, the dehumanization of women along with entitlement to their bodies, and the denigration of other genders as well. In addition, there exists the Black manosphere, a subgroup that focuses on Black men, shaming Black women and exerting “entitlements to women’s bodies, time, attention and labor,” blaming them when men’s needs are not being met. According to the UN Women report, “What is the Manosphere and Why Should We Care?” these sites falsely represent men as victims in today’s society, proposing that their rights have been taken away due to feminism and gender equality. The connection to extremism is a profound threat; for example, male supremacist posts written in November of 2024 and using the phrase “your body, my choice” exploded by 4,600% on the platform X in the 24 hours after the election. Its impact led to the harassment of girls and women around the country. UN Women reports that the “popularity of extreme language in the manosphere not only normalizes violence against women and girls, but has growing links to radicalization and extremist ideologies.”
Incels (short for “involuntary celibates”) are a subset community of the manosphere. Encyclopaedia Britannica describes them as a subculture of men—primarily heterosexual—who identify as being unable to experience romantic or sexual relationships with women and who resent and blame women for their failure to develop meaningful relationships. It is grounded in the belief that men (especially white men) are “entitled to sex and that feminism and women’s liberation have thwarted them.” Incels are classified by SPLC as a hate group due to their extreme views and acts of violence. In 2022 the US Secret Service’s National Threat Assessment Center named incels as an increasing terrorism threat and released a report on manosphere-inspired violence.
These dangerous online communities are having widespread impact especially on young men who may be feeling isolated and disillusioned. They may be simply experiencing the thoughts and feelings common to adolescence but are guided toward masculinity influencers online.
In their article “Why is the Manosphere on the Rise? UN Women Sounds the Alarm Over Online Misogyny” UN Women remarked that while youth are searching for ways to build a strong self-identity, they may discover strength on sites that actually “promote harmful attitudes that distort masculinity and fuel misogyny.” They conclude, “In the manosphere, everyone loses. Misogyny and gender inequality are harmful to men, as well as women”—indeed harmful to all genders. Equimundo reported that men with limiting attitudes toward gender were not only more likely to behave in destructive ways but were also more likely to be depressed and have thoughts of suicide. And social media algorithms can act as their own warriors in guiding young men in unhealthy ways: SPLC reports that a wide body of research—including interviews with whistleblowers—offers evidence that these algorithms lift and echo disinformation rooted in hate and extremism. According to the Movember Foundation fully “two-thirds of young men regularly engage with masculinity influencers online.” So the fact that one study found that boys who started new social media accounts on TikTok and YouTube Shorts “were fed manosphere content within 26 minutes of being on the platforms” is hardly surprising.
Though the manosphere’s toxic content was once relegated to the fringes of the internet, these ideologies now readily enter our schools, places of work, and even our homes, often without our permission. Though few people may travel them, the routes to radicalization exist behind every keyboard. How can we spot the warning signs and what is the prevention?
ALT: ALTERING MINDSET & BEHAVIOR OF THE RADICALIZED
Once radicalized, what is the path for returning? Is there a path? Two are typical: deradicalization and disengagement. Deradicalization marks an attitudinal or mindset change, moving the individual away from extreme ideologies. Disengagement, on the other hand, points to a behavioral change, a shift in how the individual acts based on their belief system, whether through violence or otherwise. In their publication CTC Sentinel, West Point’s Combating Terrorism Center reported on imprisoned terrorists and examined the differences between disengagement and deradicalization. They found that to deradicalize someone, while certainly possible and even proven in some studies, was by far the more difficult task. They found disengagement a much more realistic option if only because the radicalized individuals, even though they might still support their cause, either didn’t believe violence was the answer any longer or didn’t want to behave unlawfully themselves anymore. An article in The Conversation stated that since isolation is a strategy of those who would radicalize, allowing the radicalized “to develop new networks and a broader social identity is crucial.” Here’s where friends and family are key; the National Institute of Justice released an interview-based study of family and friends of those radicalized. They found that “homegrown” approaches had been effective; for example, creating buddy systems in addiction-based programs; offering education at the first signs of radicalization; establishing new social networks for those ready to exit; connecting radicalized people purposefully with members of their hated groups.
DEL: DELETING THE THREAT
What are the warning signs of radicalization? Some indicators worth paying attention to (especially regarding the online manosphere and incel culture) include being socially withdrawn, hiding online behavior or social media use, rigid views on how to perform gender, and expression of lack of trust, resentment, or angry feelings toward women. According to other experts, what this might look like includes detaching from one’s life, making lifestyle changes such as dropping out of school or leaving a job, trying to convince others to change, altering one’s language, supporting violence, making threats, or wearing clothing that promotes hate speech or uses hate symbols.
How do we counter a threat? Prevention is key. The SPLC recommends starting early—young people can be set in their beliefs by age 10. According to RAND’s interview study, many family and friends believe that the most important time to encounter ideas and people different from your own is in childhood since such exposure is critical for understanding and prevention. A former white supremacist noted:
I was forced to travel . . . because of the nature of my work. And I found myself in situations where I was faced . . . with my perceived enemy . . . and my perceived enemy was treating me normal. . .It was like I just came from a black neighborhood or I just came from a Hispanic neighborhood and all this stuff that you’re [other white supremacists are] saying, I didn’t see it.
For schools and families, countering threats is very much about staying open to warning signs. Experts also talk about finding out who your child trusts and being open to conversations with other caregivers about any changes in their behavior. Also recommended is staying open to children’s and youth’s perspectives but talking directly about gender equality and being a positive role model. Teach respect, healthy masculinity online, critical thinking skills, and the courage to be vulnerable and share emotions, along with strategies for how to disagree constructively, and how to make (and keep) friends, especially for boys. Expose online stereotypes, the many faces of hate, as well as pseudoscience.
There are a wide range of tactics for understanding risk factors, detecting warning signs, and countering prejudice that can become hate and may evolve into extremist ideologies or behavior. For excellent and comprehensive information on recognizing these signs, communicating effectively, taking action, combating false narratives, leveraging support, modeling respect, teaching internet safety, and building strong, caring families and communities, refer to the following resources:
Building Resilence and Confronting Risk: A Parents & Caregivers Guide to Online Radicalization
Not Just a Joke: Understanding & Preventing Gender- & Sexuality-Based Bigotry
Our government and communities can only do so much. As an audience let us experience, understand, and track the drivers and impacts of radicalism in Archduke, a story that may be seen as a harrowing cautionary tale, or even— perhaps—one of hope. And in the context of the real world, let’s accept that this front line is closer to home than we dared imagine. We each have choices to make.
As Rajiv Joseph has said, “It’s possible to reconsider our fate.”